69083_LM_Centrifuges_Resource Guide_PROOF4Navigating RevolutionsBest Practices and Preserving Sample Integrity in Centrifugation TechnologyHIGHLIGHTOperating and Maintaining Your CentrifugeHIGHLIGHTBalancing and Handling SamplesHIGHLIGHTUsing Centrifuges in Materials ResearchTable of Contents4 The Basics of Centrifuge Operation6 Choosing the Right Centrifuge9 Centrifuge Sample Handling Puts a Renewed Focus on Integrity11 Centrifuges - A Balancing Act14 Spin to Purify: Harnessing Centrifugal Power for Nanoparticle Purification16 Maintaining Your Centrifuge2 Lab Manager18 The Role of Centrifuges in Clinical ResearchIntroductionBalancing Brilliance: Harnessing Centrifuges for Breakthroughsin ResearchCentrifuges are indispensable tools for researchers and enable crucial sample preparation processesCentrifuges have evolved from once rudimentary tools to sophisticated instruments and an indispensable lab tool for researchers when they deal with complex separations. Available in multiple formats from floor models to benchtop products, and with various spin rates, centri- fuges find application across diverse fields from biotechnology and pharmaceuticals to clinical diagnostics and materials science.Their ability to facilitate crucial processes including purification, isolation, and analysis makes centrifuges an influential player in biotechnology where researchers require the separation of DNA, RNA, proteins, and organelles to understand the intricacies of cellular mechanisms. Simi- larly, in pharmaceuticals, centrifuges are integral to drug formulation and help achieve the correct purity and stability required of active ingredients. In clinical diagnostics and materials science, centrifuges play a crucial role in sample preparation for biochemical assays and molecular testing and help facilitate particle distribution analysis and nanoparticle synthesis, respectively.Continuing innovations in centrifuge technology have further expanded their capabilities. Bench- top and miniature centrifuges ramp up the portability factor and rapid processing for point-of-care applications while high-speed ultracentrifuges provide effective and precise separation at molec- ular levels. As vital tools that help drive research and enable groundbreaking discoveries across various disciplines, centrifuges have much to provide in the lab space for researchers to achieve precise experimental results while optimizing resource utilization and minimizing waste.This e-book discusses the working principles behind centrifuge operation, the factors one must consider in purchasing the centrifuge that best matches their needs, balancing samples and maintaining sample integrity, and how properly maintaining your centrifuge can enhance the reliability of your experimental results.The Basics of Centrifuge OperationThhat centrifuges are used for and how they workby Holden GalushaCentrifuges are used in various laboratories to separate fluids, gases, or liquids based on density. In research and clinical laboratories, centrifuges are often used for cell collection, organelle purification, virus purification, protein purification, and nucleic acid purification.Centrifuges have a long history, with the first commercial centrifuge unveiled in 1864. Antonin Prandtl developed a dairy centrifuge for separating cream from milk. Five yearslater, in 1869, Friedrich Miescher was the first person to use a centrifuge in a lab to isolate a cell organelle.An example of centrifuge use in a clinical setting is for the separation of whole blood components. Different assays necessitate serum or plasma, which may be obtained with centrifugation. Serum is obtained by letting a whole blood sample clot at room temperature. The sample is then centri- fuged, and the clot is removed, leaving a serum supernatant.Unlike serum, plasma is obtained from whole blood that is not left to clot and contains serum along with clotting fac- tors. To obtain plasma, a whole blood sample is collected in tubes treated with anticoagulants. Following centrifugation, cells are removed, leaving plasma supernatant.But, how does a centrifuge go about achieving this?Centrifugal forceAxis of rotationCentrifuge tubeRotor MotorPrinciples of CentrifugationA centrifuge is used to separate particles suspended in a liquid according to particle size and density, viscosity of the medium, and rotor speed.Thithin a solution, gravitational force will cause particles of higher density than the solvent to sink, and those less dense than the solvent to float to the top. Centrifugation takes advantage of even minute differences in density to separate particles within a solution.As the rotor spins around a central axis, it generates a cen- trifugal force acting to move particles away from the axis of rotation. If the centrifugal force exceeds the buoyant forces of liquid media and the frictional force created by the parti- cle, the particles will sediment.Using a centrifuge safelyIn using a centrifuge safely, certain factors must be taken into consideration.Ensure a sturdy, level work surfaceAlways ensure the centrifuge is on an appropriate surface before operation.Balance the centrifugeRunning an unbalanced centrifuge may cause significant damage, and injure the operator and other laboratory personnel. The total mass of each tube should be as close as possible- this becomes increasingly important at very high rotor speeds. Balancing masses to the nearest 0.1 gram is advisable, and it is important to balance tubes by mass, not volume. For example, do not balance a sample consistingof liquid with a higher or lower density than water with an equal volume of water.Do not open the lid while the rotor is movingMany centrifuges have a "safety shutoff." However, this will only stop power to the rotor, which will still spin due to its inertia for some time until it is slowed to a stop by friction.If the centrifuge is wobbling or shaking, pull the plugA little vibration is normal, but excessive amounts can mean danger. First, double check that the tubes are cor- rectly balanced. If this does not resolve the issue, do not operate the centrifuge until it has been serviced by the manufacturer or dealer.Choosing the Right CentrifugePicking the centrifuge that suits your research needs plays a vital factor in your experiments' outcomeby Holden GalushaResearchers must balance several factors in choosing the right type and model of centrifuge for their research, espe- cially when there are so many available in the market.Centrifuge sizeCentrifuges are available as various benchtop or floor-stand- ing models.Floor-standing models offer greater sample capacity and can achieve high speeds. Superspeed centrifuges can achieve a maximum g-force (relative centrifugal force, RCF) of over70,000 x g, and ultracentrifuges often used for DNA or RNA fractionation, can achieve up to 1,000,000 x g. For large-ca- pacity, low-speed applications, low-speed centrifuges reach- ing approximately 7000 x g are available.Benchtop models have a smaller footprint, and general-pur- pose models are ideal for a wide range of applications. There are many benchtop models available, including high-speed, microcentrifuge, clinical, and cell washer models. Clinical benchtop models and cell washers typically operate at lower speeds and are suited to diagnostic applications, and washing debris from red blood cells.Types of centrifugesUnderstanding the different types of centrifuges goes beyond the basic classification of benchtop and floor models. Here are some other types of centrifuges that can be classified as either benchtop or floor but have other characteristics that differentiate them.Refrigerated centrifugesDesigned to maintain a constant temperature to ensure the viability of heat-sensitive samples, refrigerated centrifuges are a staple in many labs. They are frequently used in biolo- gy, biochemistry, and clinical laboratories.Vacuum centrifugesAlso called vacuum concentrators or centrifugal evaporators, vacuum centrifuges are a unique type of centrifuge that pulls a vacuum within the chamber during centrifugation.Rather than separating components based on density as a standard centrifuge does, centrifugal evaporators concen- trate samples by evaporating solvents. Much like a freeze dryer, pulling a vacuum in the chamber lowers the boiling point of the sample solvents, allowing the solvents to evapo- rate faster and leave concentrated samples. Vacuum centri- fuges are common in pharmaceutical drug development, genomic, and proteomic research, where they are used in purifying DNA/RNA and proteins.MicrocentrifugesDesigned to process small sample volumes, microcentrifuges offer high-speed centrifugation on a small scale. Their com- pact footprint makes them suited for labs where bench space is limited. They are common in molecular biology laborato- ries to prep DNA/RNA and protein samples.UltracentrifugesAs the name implies, ultracentrifuges are designed forultra-fast spinning. Thith models able to spin between 60,000 RRPM up to 150,000 RPM, they are suited well for sep- arating very fine particles such as viruses and ribosomes.Ultracentrifuges are often used in medical settings, such as in hematology labs for blood separation and analysis.Analytical ultracentrifugesTypically, centrifuges are part of a lab's sample preparation process to ready samples for analysis. However, analytical ultracentrifuges play an active role in analysis. They are equipped with optical systems such as UV-Vis or fluorescence detection that analyze samples in real-time during centrifuga- tion. They can provide detailed information on the character- istics of the molecules, such as sedimentation velocity.Swinging BucketFixed AngleCentrifuge rotor typesThere are two very common rotor designs: fixed angle, and swinging bucket. The fixed angle rotor is designed to hold tubes in a fixed position at a fixed angle relative to thevertical axis of rotation (up to about 45°). Centrifugation will cause particles to sediment along the side and bottom of the tube. The swinging bucket design allows the tubes to swing out from a vertical resting position to become parallel to the horizontal during centrifugation. As a result, sediment will form along the bottom of the tube.Fixed angle rotors are ideal for pelleting applications either to remove particles from a suspension and discard the debris or to recover the pellet, whereas swinging bucket rotors are best for separating large volume samples at low speeds and resolving samples in rate-zonal (density) gradients.Centrifuge speedCentrifuges may be classified based on maximum speeds, measured as revolutions per minute (RPM). Speeds range from 0-7,500 RPM for low-speed centrifuges, all the way to 20,000 RPM or higher.Centrifuge rotor speed is often expressed as RCF in units of gravity (x g) for various procedures. However, many centrifuges display speed as revolutions per minute (RPM), necessitating conversion to ensure the correct experimen- tal conditions. The following formula is used to convert RPM to RCF, where R is the rotor radius (cm) and S is the speed (RPM):g = (1.118 x 10-5) RS2Floor-standingTable-topCentrifuge sizeCentrifuges are available as various benchtop or floor-stand- ing models.Floor-standing models offer greater sample capacity and can achieve high speeds. Superspeed centrifuges can achieve a maximum g-force (relative centrifugal force, RCF) of over 70,000 x g, and ultracentrifuges often used for DNA or RNA fractionation, can achieve up to 1,000,000 x g. For large-ca- pacity, low-speed applications, low-speed centrifuges reach- ing approximately 7000 x g are available.Benchtop models have a smaller footprint, and general-pur- pose models are ideal for a wide range of applications. There are many benchtop models available, including high-speed, microcentrifuge, clinical, and cell washer models. Clinical benchtop models and cell washers typically operate at lower speeds and are suited to diagnostic applications, and washing debris from red blood cells.Questions to consider when purchasing a centrifugeIt is essential to select a centrifuge that is suited to the specific application. When purchasing acentrifuge, it is important to consider the following questions:What sample volumes are you working with?For processes involving large or varying volumes, a floor-standing model with higher capacityand different rotor configurations may be the best solution.Are samples temperature-sensitive?If so, a centrifuge with refrigeration and temperature control options is required.Will the centrifuge be used for processing clinical or blood banking samples?Cell washers or clinical models are available for these specific applications.How much laboratory space is available vs the centrifuge footprint?What is the maximum g-force the centrifuge is capable of generating?Low-speed centrifuges are ideal for separating whole cells, while ultracentrifuges are necessary for separating DNA and RNA.Centrifuge Sample Handling Puts a Renewed Focus on IntegrityCentrifuge consumables that incorporate advanced materials and smart designs are impacting fields from extractables to labs-on-chipsby Adam Dickie, PhDCentrifuges have long been unsung workhorses of biology and chemistry labs, but these machines are increasingly coming into the spotlight with recent advancements that have enabled researchers to investigate nanoscale systems, improve production of drug delivery vesicles, and more.But as centrifuges implement new features, how are handling systems keeping pace? In this article, we review some trends impacting centrifuge sample formats.Extractables and leachablesMost labs have foregone glass centrifuge tubes in favor of the cost and convenience of plastic consumables typically made from polypropylene-but recent research indicates that chemical leaching from such sample holders may be an underestimated problem in life science applications. A 2021 report by industry giant Eppendorf revealed that a commontype of centrifuge incubation-a half-hour at 95°C, spinningat 600 rpm-could contaminate ultrapure water samples in microcentrifuge tubes.1 Analytical methods found part-per- million level quantities of water-soluble leachables, such as additives, in the samples. Organic solvents extracted even more contaminants from microcentrifuge tubes, sometimes to part-per-thousand concentrations.To combat against leachables and extractables, centrifuge tube manufacturers recommend several different approaches. Materials such as polycarbonates offer enhanced chemical resistance, while design changes such as thicker tube walls can resist centrifugal forces. Vendors are also taking closer looks at polypropylene supply chains, presenting products from virgin resin sources or with improved traceability.Biosafe centrifugationCENTRIFUGEPREVENTIVE CAREAn improperly-cared-for centrifuge can become a potentially lethal hazard and can put your precious samples at risk. Regular preventive care is essential to keep the centrifuge functioning properly and safely. The centrifuge must be kept clean and lubricated, be properly used, and inspected regularly; it is also a good idea to sign up for a service agreement.CLEAN IT REGULARLYExpert Tips:Use neutral cleaning solutions (alcohol or alcohol-based disinfectant) applied with a soft cloth to clean your rotors and accessories.Wipe down the interior portion of the centrifuge, the rotor chamber,and the surfaces that have electronic components, such as touchscreens and keypads during daily cleaning.Keep a chart next to the centrifuge showing when it was last cleaned and who cleaned it.KEEP IT LUBRICATEDExpert Tips:Check pivots on swing-out rotors for proper lubrication.Apply silicone-based pivot grease regularly.USE IT PROPERLYExpert Tips:Ensure buckets are properly seated in their pins.Always balance the tubes in the rotor.Only operate rotors within the stated guidelines for speed and maximum compartment mass.Avoid putting anything inside the rotor that could scratch the surface.An improperly cared-for centrifuge can become a potentially lethal hazard and can put your precious samples at risk. Regular preventive care is essential to keep the centrifuge functioning properly and safely. The centrifuge must be kept clean and lubricated, properly used, and inspected regularly; it is also a good idea to sign up for a service agreement.For users who prepare and store biomaterials such as cells inside centrifuge tubes, critical problems occur when plastic surfaces react with samples. Historically, typical solutions for minimizing protein adsorption onto polypropylene tubes included silicone coatings or adding bovine serum albumin to sample assays. Recent improvements in polypropylene synthesis, however, have enabled vendors to offer centrifugetubes specially designed to repel proteins and nucleic acids. Others come with cleanroom sterility specifications and certified free of DNase/RNase contaminants.Some vendors offer solutions to ensure integrity when working with higher-capacity formats as well. For instance, there are single-use and sterilized centrifuge bags available to minimize cross-contamination during harvesting and purification of components from bioreactors.Continuous innovation in centrifuge sample handling is driven by the need to couple improved performance and automation with stricter control over sample integrity. Lab managers can enhance data quality and streamline processes by adopting similar strategies in their workflows.References1. "Extractables and Leachables in Microcentrifuge Tubes - Extensive HPLC/GC/MS Analysis."https://www.eppendorf.com/product-media/doc/en/625557/Consum-ables_Application-Note_417_Microcentrifuge-Tubes_Ex- tractables-Leachables-Microcentrifuge-Tubes-Exten-sive-HPLC-GC-MS-Analysis.pdf.Centrifuges -A Balancing ActBalancing the centrifuge prevents potential damage to the instrument, and is crucial for safe operationby Holden Galusha, and Ajay P. Manuel, PhDBefore starting the centrifuge, it is necessary to load it correctly. Balancing a centrifuge ensures safe and efficient operation, uniform distribution of samples, and minimizes.Tips to finding balance with your centrifuge Ensure all sample tubes are evenly filled. If additional tubes are required for balancing, fill them with water or a liquid of similar density to the sam- ple, and ensure the mass is balanced to the nearest0.1 grams. For each tube inserted in the rotor, add a tube of equal weight directly opposite it. This will ensure the center of gravity remains in the center of the rotor. Rotate the rotor 90° and add two additional tubes directly opposite one another. Repeat the above steps!How to balance 3 tubes, 5 tubes, or 7 tubes in a centrifuge with 12 positions There are two ways to balance three tubes. The first option is to insert three sample tubes next to each other and create three balance tubes to be situated directly across from the sample tubes. Alternatively, three sample tubes may be spaced evenly around the rotor.To balance five tubes, create one balance tube and place two sets of three tubes across from each other.To balance seven tubes, create one balance tube and place two sets of four tubes across from each other.ConclusionAn imbalanced centrifuge could result in excessive stress on centrifuge components, and could easily escalate toward mechanical failure or catastrophic accidents. This, in turn, would compromise sample integrity, affect experimentalresults, and cause unnecessary delays in laboratory research. Proper balancing techniques go a long way to safeguarding the equipment while enhancing the reliability and reproduc- ibility of centrifugation processes.Product SpotlightEppendorf Centrifugation SolutionsFind your perfect fitFor 60 years, we've been at the forefront of centrifuge innovation, catering to diverse markets like molecular biology, biochemistry, cell biology, and material science. Our centrifuge solutions offer unrivaled versatility, from personal 12-place microcentrifuges to compact benchtop models, to high- speed and ultracentrifuges.Eppendorf's portfolio isn't just about centrifuges; it's a holistic solution. We provide everything you need: centrifuges, rotors, adapters, sustainability initiatives, consumables, services, and digital products. Whether you're separating molecules or studying cellular structures, trust Eppendorf to streamline your research.Experience efficiency, reliability, and sustainability with Eppendorf centrifuges. Elevate your lab's capabilities today!CLICK HERE TO LEARN MORESpin to Purify: Harnessing Centrifugal Power for Nanoparticle PurificationCentrifugation is essential for achieving monodisperse solutions of nanoparticles and to ensure consistency in your experimentsby Ajay P. Manuel, PhDThe process of centrifugation involves the application of a centrifugal force to assist in the separation and sedimen- tation of various components in a mixture. In the realm of materials science, the ability to precisely control the centrif- ugal force, using centrifuges, allows researchers to isolatespecific particles in heterogeneous mixtures, concentrate, and remove sample impurities. This, in turn, helps foster a wide variety of processes including advanced materials syn- thesis at micro and nano scales, and sample preparation for nanoparticle analysis, to name a few. Centrifuges thus play apivotal role in materials science as well as fostering innova- tions in various fields including nanotechnology, biotechnol- ogy, and polymer science.Nanoparticle purification and characterizationOne of the most significant applications of centrifugation in materials science is the purification of nanoparticles.Nanoparticles, due to their small size and high surface area, often require stringent purification processes to remove contaminants and achieve desired properties. Homogeneity and uniformity are the ideals to strive for. Centrifugation is a highly efficient method for this purpose, utilizing techniques such as density gradient separation and differential centrifu- gal sedimentation (DCS) to help achieve uniform nanoparti- cle size and distribution.Density Gradient CentrifugationDensity gradient centrifugation separates nanoparticles based on their buoyant density. Sample preparation begins by layering a sample onto a preformed density gradient. This is usually composed of a substance like sucrose or calcium chloride. Thhen the centrifugation begins, nanoparticles spin and gradually migrate to areas of matching density within the surrounding media. As a result, nanoparticles are now separated by different densities and provide for a collection of uniform particles with their impurities removed.Differential Centrifugal Sedimentation (DCS)DCS is often used by researchers to obtain information on the size and density of nanoparticles. This technique mea- sures the time it takes for particles to migrate and sediment through a fluid medium subject to centrifugal forces, thus helping determine particle size distributions. For example, in the production of drug delivery systems, DCS can ensure that nanoparticles are of a uniform size, enhancing their efficacy and reducing potential side effects.Although the two techniques may seem similar, the main difference between the two is the type of physical properties on which the process of centrifugation is based. Differential centrifugation is generally considered to be quite straight- forward in its approach while DCS is utilized when there is a need to sort much smaller particles for increased specificity. A slightly modified version of the latter involves centrifugal photo-sedimentation, where a light source is used to mea-sure the concentration of particles at different positions in the sedimentation path. This enables researchers to monitor particle sedimentation in real-time, providing valuable data on particle size and distribution.Centrifugation techniques have been a familiar sight in various applications surrounding nanoparticle analysis and purification. Density gradient centrifugation has been effectively used in the purification of gold nanoparticles toachieve high levels of homogeneity and uniformity in parti- cle size and distribution. DCS has been utilized to study the size distribution of silica nanoparticles, and obtain detailed insights into their synthesis and potential applications.Researchers have found centrifugal photo-sedimentation to be particularly favorable for studying the dynamic behavior of nanoparticles in various environments. Altogether, one cannot underscore the critical role centrifugation and centri- fuges play in advancing nanoparticle research and materials synthesis.ConclusionFrom aiding in the development of advanced materials with tailored properties to effective purification and precise characterization of nanoparticles, centrifugation is an indis- pensable technique in materials science and consequently fostered various innovations in fields including medical imaging, drug delivery, and nanoelectronics.Through techniques such as density gradient centrifuga- tion, differential centrifugal sedimentation, and centrifugal photo-sedimentation, researchers can achieve high-purity nanoparticle samples and detailed analyses of their proper- ties. These capabilities are essential for the development of advanced materials with specific characteristics. As the de- mand for high-performance materials continues to grow, the role of centrifugation in materials science will undoubtedly expand, fostering new discoveries and applications that have the potential to transform various industries.Centrifuge Maintenance ChecklistRoutine maintenance of your centrifuge safeguards its longevity, reliability, and the integrity of your experimentsby Holden Galusha and Ajay P. Manuel, PhDRoutine maintenance of centrifuges is essential for ensuring their longevity, reliability, and optimal performance. Regular lubrication, thorough cleaning, and careful inspection for wear and tear prevent mechanical failures and contamina- tion, thereby safeguarding the integrity of experiments and results. Thell-maintained centrifuges operate more efficiently, reduce the risk of costly repairs or replacements, and ensure the safety of laboratory personnel. The following checklist advises users on consistent centrifuge maintenance practices that can help enhance their confidence and compliance with safety standards, as well as contribute to the overall success and productivity of the laboratory.Understanding Centrifuge TypesThe Role of Centrifuges in Clinical ResearchCentrifuges play an important role in progressing clinical researchby Andy Tay, PhD and Ajay P. Manuel, PhDA centrifuge is one of the most common pieces of equipment in a biological lab. The instrument makes use of centrifu- gal force to separate components in a fluid, causing denser particles to settle to the bottom of a centrifuge tube. After centrifugation, particles are separated into layers based on their densities.One of the most useful applications of centrifuges is for health diagnostics. A common example is for health check- ups using a panel of blood biomarkers. Centrifuges are acrucial part of sample processing because there are many elements within a blood sample that need to be separated as much as possible to provide an accurate diagnosis. After centrifugation, blood is separated into three layers. Thebottom layer contains red blood cells. The percentage of red blood cells and the amount of oxygen they carry can be used to diagnose conditions like anemia, where there are insuf- ficient red blood cells to carry oxygen. The middle layer is white blood cells, and its number can provide information about the body's ability to fight infection. The top layer isplasma, which contains common biomarkers such as urea and creatine, which indicate kidney health.Applications for ultracentrifugesExtracellular vesicles are membrane-bound vesicles between 30-10,000 nm in size secreted from cells that play a role in cellular communications. They are produced in small quan- tities but can be isolated from bodily fluids like blood, urine, and saliva via ultracentrifuges to provide health information. For instance, cancer cells secrete more extracellular vesicles than their healthy counterparts and their vesicles have been found to contain oncoproteins and RNA species that contrib- ute to cancer progression, including metastasis. By analyzing the contents of extracellular vesicles, researchers are trying to develop biomarkers for the diagnosis and surveillanceof cancer.Ultracentrifuges play a pivotal role in isolating pure extra- cellular vesicles as they can spin at a much higher velocity than conventional centrifuges to separate particles with similar densities. In blood plasma, there are many types of biomolecules and cellular secretions of similar densities and to isolate the analyte of choice, these components must be separated very finely to obtain a pure sample. This is also why ultracentrifugation to isolate extracellular vesicles may take hours and multiple steps of washing and purification.Extracellular vesicles are also being developed by biotech companies for drug delivery applications, owing to their bioactive properties and tropism toward targeted tissues. For therapeutic purposes, a large number of extracellular vesi-cles must be isolated quickly, but cells only produce limited quantities. An ultracentrifuge that can work with multiple samples at a time with high isolation throughput is ideal for clinical research.Product featuresNewer centrifuges are equipped with programmable accel- eration and deceleration, which have been shown to help terminate unwanted side reactions and reduce waiting time. These features allow for controlled and gradual changes in spin speeds, preventing sudden forces that could cause sam- ple disruption, shearing, or pelleting irregularities.By allowing users to customize the ramp-up and ramp-down rates, sensitive samples are safeguarded from mechanical stresses associated with the rapid acceleration or decel- eration. This ensures the integrity of delicate biological molecules, such as extracellular vesicles, and other fragile materials during ultracentrifugation.Refrigeration is also an important feature of centrifuges to minimize sample denaturation, especially with biomolecules like proteins. Pre-cooling of centrifuge rotors and havinga minimal rise in temperature when rotors are spinning at maximum speed are also useful to prevent heat-induced sample damage.As more research institutions are going green, manufactur- ers are designing centrifuges that are more environmentally friendly by ensuring lower energy consumption and using recyclable materials.Eppendorf is a leading life science company that develops and supplies products catering to academic and commercial research laboratories. The product portfolio is made up of instruments, consumables, and services for liquid, sample, and cell handling. For over 75 years our products have gained the trust of laboratory researchers. Our scientists and engineers are on a constant mission to build on established methods to help address the challenges that today's scientists face. Building on a foundation of experience, history, and knowledge, we are committed to the future and continuously strive to improve human living conditions.www.eppendorf.com/ca-en/In partnership with69083_LM_Centrifuges_Resource Guide_PROOF4Navigating RevolutionsBest Practices and Preserving Sample Integrity in Centrifugation TechnologyHIGHLIGHTOperating and Maintaining Your CentrifugeHIGHLIGHTBalancing and Handling SamplesHIGHLIGHTUsing Centrifuges in Materials ResearchTable of Contents4 The Basics of Centrifuge Operation6 Choosing the Right Centrifuge9 Centrifuge Sample Handling Puts a Renewed Focus on Integrity11 Centrifuges - A Balancing Act14 Spin to Purify: Harnessing Centrifugal Power for Nanoparticle Purification16 Maintaining Your Centrifuge2 Lab Manager18 The Role of Centrifuges in Clinical ResearchIntroductionBalancing Brilliance: Harnessing Centrifuges for Breakthroughsin ResearchCentrifuges are indispensable tools for researchers and enable crucial sample preparation processesCentrifuges have evolved from once rudimentary tools to sophisticated instruments and an indispensable lab tool for researchers when they deal with complex separations. Available in multiple formats from floor models to benchtop products, and with various spin rates, centri- fuges find application across diverse fields from biotechnology and pharmaceuticals to clinical diagnostics and materials science.Their ability to facilitate crucial processes including purification, isolation, and analysis makes centrifuges an influential player in biotechnology where researchers require the separation of DNA, RNA, proteins, and organelles to understand the intricacies of cellular mechanisms. Simi- larly, in pharmaceuticals, centrifuges are integral to drug formulation and help achieve the correct purity and stability required of active ingredients. In clinical diagnostics and materials science, centrifuges play a crucial role in sample preparation for biochemical assays and molecular testing and help facilitate particle distribution analysis and nanoparticle synthesis, respectively.Continuing innovations in centrifuge technology have further expanded their capabilities. Bench- top and miniature centrifuges ramp up the portability factor and rapid processing for point-of-care applications while high-speed ultracentrifuges provide effective and precise separation at molec- ular levels. As vital tools that help drive research and enable groundbreaking discoveries across various disciplines, centrifuges have much to provide in the lab space for researchers to achieve precise experimental results while optimizing resource utilization and minimizing waste.This e-book discusses the working principles behind centrifuge operation, the factors one must consider in purchasing the centrifuge that best matches their needs, balancing samples and maintaining sample integrity, and how properly maintaining your centrifuge can enhance the reliability of your experimental results.The Basics of Centrifuge OperationThhat centrifuges are used for and how they workby Holden GalushaCentrifuges are used in various laboratories to separate fluids, gases, or liquids based on density. In research and clinical laboratories, centrifuges are often used for cell collection, organelle purification, virus purification, protein purification, and nucleic acid purification.Centrifuges have a long history, with the first commercial centrifuge unveiled in 1864. Antonin Prandtl developed a dairy centrifuge for separating cream from milk. Five yearslater, in 1869, Friedrich Miescher was the first person to use a centrifuge in a lab to isolate a cell organelle.An example of centrifuge use in a clinical setting is for the separation of whole blood components. Different assays necessitate serum or plasma, which may be obtained with centrifugation. Serum is obtained by letting a whole blood sample clot at room temperature. The sample is then centri- fuged, and the clot is removed, leaving a serum supernatant.Unlike serum, plasma is obtained from whole blood that is not left to clot and contains serum along with clotting fac- tors. To obtain plasma, a whole blood sample is collected in tubes treated with anticoagulants. Following centrifugation, cells are removed, leaving plasma supernatant.But, how does a centrifuge go about achieving this?Centrifugal forceAxis of rotationCentrifuge tubeRotor MotorPrinciples of CentrifugationA centrifuge is used to separate particles suspended in a liquid according to particle size and density, viscosity of the medium, and rotor speed.Thithin a solution, gravitational force will cause particles of higher density than the solvent to sink, and those less dense than the solvent to float to the top. Centrifugation takes advantage of even minute differences in density to separate particles within a solution.As the rotor spins around a central axis, it generates a cen- trifugal force acting to move particles away from the axis of rotation. If the centrifugal force exceeds the buoyant forces of liquid media and the frictional force created by the parti- cle, the particles will sediment.Using a centrifuge safelyIn using a centrifuge safely, certain factors must be taken into consideration.Ensure a sturdy, level work surfaceAlways ensure the centrifuge is on an appropriate surface before operation.Balance the centrifugeRunning an unbalanced centrifuge may cause significant damage, and injure the operator and other laboratory personnel. The total mass of each tube should be as close as possible- this becomes increasingly important at very high rotor speeds. Balancing masses to the nearest 0.1 gram is advisable, and it is important to balance tubes by mass, not volume. For example, do not balance a sample consistingof liquid with a higher or lower density than water with an equal volume of water.Do not open the lid while the rotor is movingMany centrifuges have a "safety shutoff." However, this will only stop power to the rotor, which will still spin due to its inertia for some time until it is slowed to a stop by friction.If the centrifuge is wobbling or shaking, pull the plugA little vibration is normal, but excessive amounts can mean danger. First, double check that the tubes are cor- rectly balanced. If this does not resolve the issue, do not operate the centrifuge until it has been serviced by the manufacturer or dealer.Choosing the Right CentrifugePicking the centrifuge that suits your research needs plays a vital factor in your experiments' outcomeby Holden GalushaResearchers must balance several factors in choosing the right type and model of centrifuge for their research, espe- cially when there are so many available in the market.Centrifuge sizeCentrifuges are available as various benchtop or floor-stand- ing models.Floor-standing models offer greater sample capacity and can achieve high speeds. Superspeed centrifuges can achieve a maximum g-force (relative centrifugal force, RCF) of over70,000 x g, and ultracentrifuges often used for DNA or RNA fractionation, can achieve up to 1,000,000 x g. For large-ca- pacity, low-speed applications, low-speed centrifuges reach- ing approximately 7000 x g are available.Benchtop models have a smaller footprint, and general-pur- pose models are ideal for a wide range of applications. There are many benchtop models available, including high-speed, microcentrifuge, clinical, and cell washer models. Clinical benchtop models and cell washers typically operate at lower speeds and are suited to diagnostic applications, and washing debris from red blood cells.Types of centrifugesUnderstanding the different types of centrifuges goes beyond the basic classification of benchtop and floor models. Here are some other types of centrifuges that can be classified as either benchtop or floor but have other characteristics that differentiate them.Refrigerated centrifugesDesigned to maintain a constant temperature to ensure the viability of heat-sensitive samples, refrigerated centrifuges are a staple in many labs. They are frequently used in biolo- gy, biochemistry, and clinical laboratories.Vacuum centrifugesAlso called vacuum concentrators or centrifugal evaporators, vacuum centrifuges are a unique type of centrifuge that pulls a vacuum within the chamber during centrifugation.Rather than separating components based on density as a standard centrifuge does, centrifugal evaporators concen- trate samples by evaporating solvents. Much like a freeze dryer, pulling a vacuum in the chamber lowers the boiling point of the sample solvents, allowing the solvents to evapo- rate faster and leave concentrated samples. Vacuum centri- fuges are common in pharmaceutical drug development, genomic, and proteomic research, where they are used in purifying DNA/RNA and proteins.MicrocentrifugesDesigned to process small sample volumes, microcentrifuges offer high-speed centrifugation on a small scale. Their com- pact footprint makes them suited for labs where bench space is limited. They are common in molecular biology laborato- ries to prep DNA/RNA and protein samples.UltracentrifugesAs the name implies, ultracentrifuges are designed forultra-fast spinning. Thith models able to spin between 60,000 RRPM up to 150,000 RPM, they are suited well for sep- arating very fine particles such as viruses and ribosomes.Ultracentrifuges are often used in medical settings, such as in hematology labs for blood separation and analysis.Analytical ultracentrifugesTypically, centrifuges are part of a lab's sample preparation process to ready samples for analysis. However, analytical ultracentrifuges play an active role in analysis. They are equipped with optical systems such as UV-Vis or fluorescence detection that analyze samples in real-time during centrifuga- tion. They can provide detailed information on the character- istics of the molecules, such as sedimentation velocity.Swinging BucketFixed AngleCentrifuge rotor typesThere are two very common rotor designs: fixed angle, and swinging bucket. The fixed angle rotor is designed to hold tubes in a fixed position at a fixed angle relative to thevertical axis of rotation (up to about 45°). Centrifugation will cause particles to sediment along the side and bottom of the tube. The swinging bucket design allows the tubes to swing out from a vertical resting position to become parallel to the horizontal during centrifugation. As a result, sediment will form along the bottom of the tube.Fixed angle rotors are ideal for pelleting applications either to remove particles from a suspension and discard the debris or to recover the pellet, whereas swinging bucket rotors are best for separating large volume samples at low speeds and resolving samples in rate-zonal (density) gradients.Centrifuge speedCentrifuges may be classified based on maximum speeds, measured as revolutions per minute (RPM). Speeds range from 0-7,500 RPM for low-speed centrifuges, all the way to 20,000 RPM or higher.Centrifuge rotor speed is often expressed as RCF in units of gravity (x g) for various procedures. However, many centrifuges display speed as revolutions per minute (RPM), necessitating conversion to ensure the correct experimen- tal conditions. The following formula is used to convert RPM to RCF, where R is the rotor radius (cm) and S is the speed (RPM):g = (1.118 x 10-5) RS2Floor-standingTable-topCentrifuge sizeCentrifuges are available as various benchtop or floor-stand- ing models.Floor-standing models offer greater sample capacity and can achieve high speeds. Superspeed centrifuges can achieve a maximum g-force (relative centrifugal force, RCF) of over 70,000 x g, and ultracentrifuges often used for DNA or RNA fractionation, can achieve up to 1,000,000 x g. For large-ca- pacity, low-speed applications, low-speed centrifuges reach- ing approximately 7000 x g are available.Benchtop models have a smaller footprint, and general-pur- pose models are ideal for a wide range of applications. There are many benchtop models available, including high-speed, microcentrifuge, clinical, and cell washer models. Clinical benchtop models and cell washers typically operate at lower speeds and are suited to diagnostic applications, and washing debris from red blood cells.Questions to consider when purchasing a centrifugeIt is essential to select a centrifuge that is suited to the specific application. When purchasing acentrifuge, it is important to consider the following questions:What sample volumes are you working with?For processes involving large or varying volumes, a floor-standing model with higher capacityand different rotor configurations may be the best solution.Are samples temperature-sensitive?If so, a centrifuge with refrigeration and temperature control options is required.Will the centrifuge be used for processing clinical or blood banking samples?Cell washers or clinical models are available for these specific applications.How much laboratory space is available vs the centrifuge footprint?What is the maximum g-force the centrifuge is capable of generating?Low-speed centrifuges are ideal for separating whole cells, while ultracentrifuges are necessary for separating DNA and RNA.Centrifuge Sample Handling Puts a Renewed Focus on IntegrityCentrifuge consumables that incorporate advanced materials and smart designs are impacting fields from extractables to labs-on-chipsby Adam Dickie, PhDCentrifuges have long been unsung workhorses of biology and chemistry labs, but these machines are increasingly coming into the spotlight with recent advancements that have enabled researchers to investigate nanoscale systems, improve production of drug delivery vesicles, and more.But as centrifuges implement new features, how are handling systems keeping pace? In this article, we review some trends impacting centrifuge sample formats.Extractables and leachablesMost labs have foregone glass centrifuge tubes in favor of the cost and convenience of plastic consumables typically made from polypropylene-but recent research indicates that chemical leaching from such sample holders may be an underestimated problem in life science applications. A 2021 report by industry giant Eppendorf revealed that a commontype of centrifuge incubation-a half-hour at 95°C, spinningat 600 rpm-could contaminate ultrapure water samples in microcentrifuge tubes.1 Analytical methods found part-per- million level quantities of water-soluble leachables, such as additives, in the samples. Organic solvents extracted even more contaminants from microcentrifuge tubes, sometimes to part-per-thousand concentrations.To combat against leachables and extractables, centrifuge tube manufacturers recommend several different approaches. Materials such as polycarbonates offer enhanced chemical resistance, while design changes such as thicker tube walls can resist centrifugal forces. Vendors are also taking closer looks at polypropylene supply chains, presenting products from virgin resin sources or with improved traceability.Biosafe centrifugationCENTRIFUGEPREVENTIVE CAREAn improperly-cared-for centrifuge can become a potentially lethal hazard and can put your precious samples at risk. Regular preventive care is essential to keep the centrifuge functioning properly and safely. The centrifuge must be kept clean and lubricated, be properly used, and inspected regularly; it is also a good idea to sign up for a service agreement.CLEAN IT REGULARLYExpert Tips:Use neutral cleaning solutions (alcohol or alcohol-based disinfectant) applied with a soft cloth to clean your rotors and accessories.Wipe down the interior portion of the centrifuge, the rotor chamber,and the surfaces that have electronic components, such as touchscreens and keypads during daily cleaning.Keep a chart next to the centrifuge showing when it was last cleaned and who cleaned it.KEEP IT LUBRICATEDExpert Tips:Check pivots on swing-out rotors for proper lubrication.Apply silicone-based pivot grease regularly.USE IT PROPERLYExpert Tips:Ensure buckets are properly seated in their pins.Always balance the tubes in the rotor.Only operate rotors within the stated guidelines for speed and maximum compartment mass.Avoid putting anything inside the rotor that could scratch the surface.An improperly cared-for centrifuge can become a potentially lethal hazard and can put your precious samples at risk. Regular preventive care is essential to keep the centrifuge functioning properly and safely. The centrifuge must be kept clean and lubricated, properly used, and inspected regularly; it is also a good idea to sign up for a service agreement.For users who prepare and store biomaterials such as cells inside centrifuge tubes, critical problems occur when plastic surfaces react with samples. Historically, typical solutions for minimizing protein adsorption onto polypropylene tubes included silicone coatings or adding bovine serum albumin to sample assays. Recent improvements in polypropylene synthesis, however, have enabled vendors to offer centrifugetubes specially designed to repel proteins and nucleic acids. Others come with cleanroom sterility specifications and certified free of DNase/RNase contaminants.Some vendors offer solutions to ensure integrity when working with higher-capacity formats as well. For instance, there are single-use and sterilized centrifuge bags available to minimize cross-contamination during harvesting and purification of components from bioreactors.Continuous innovation in centrifuge sample handling is driven by the need to couple improved performance and automation with stricter control over sample integrity. Lab managers can enhance data quality and streamline processes by adopting similar strategies in their workflows.References1. "Extractables and Leachables in Microcentrifuge Tubes - Extensive HPLC/GC/MS Analysis."https://www.eppendorf.com/product-media/doc/en/625557/Consum-ables_Application-Note_417_Microcentrifuge-Tubes_Ex- tractables-Leachables-Microcentrifuge-Tubes-Exten-sive-HPLC-GC-MS-Analysis.pdf.Centrifuges -A Balancing ActBalancing the centrifuge prevents potential damage to the instrument, and is crucial for safe operationby Holden Galusha, and Ajay P. Manuel, PhDBefore starting the centrifuge, it is necessary to load it correctly. Balancing a centrifuge ensures safe and efficient operation, uniform distribution of samples, and minimizes.Tips to finding balance with your centrifuge Ensure all sample tubes are evenly filled. If additional tubes are required for balancing, fill them with water or a liquid of similar density to the sam- ple, and ensure the mass is balanced to the nearest0.1 grams. For each tube inserted in the rotor, add a tube of equal weight directly opposite it. This will ensure the center of gravity remains in the center of the rotor. Rotate the rotor 90° and add two additional tubes directly opposite one another. Repeat the above steps!How to balance 3 tubes, 5 tubes, or 7 tubes in a centrifuge with 12 positions There are two ways to balance three tubes. The first option is to insert three sample tubes next to each other and create three balance tubes to be situated directly across from the sample tubes. Alternatively, three sample tubes may be spaced evenly around the rotor.To balance five tubes, create one balance tube and place two sets of three tubes across from each other.To balance seven tubes, create one balance tube and place two sets of four tubes across from each other.ConclusionAn imbalanced centrifuge could result in excessive stress on centrifuge components, and could easily escalate toward mechanical failure or catastrophic accidents. This, in turn, would compromise sample integrity, affect experimentalresults, and cause unnecessary delays in laboratory research. Proper balancing techniques go a long way to safeguarding the equipment while enhancing the reliability and reproduc- ibility of centrifugation processes.Product SpotlightEppendorf Centrifugation SolutionsFind your perfect fitFor 60 years, we've been at the forefront of centrifuge innovation, catering to diverse markets like molecular biology, biochemistry, cell biology, and material science. Our centrifuge solutions offer unrivaled versatility, from personal 12-place microcentrifuges to compact benchtop models, to high- speed and ultracentrifuges.Eppendorf's portfolio isn't just about centrifuges; it's a holistic solution. We provide everything you need: centrifuges, rotors, adapters, sustainability initiatives, consumables, services, and digital products. Whether you're separating molecules or studying cellular structures, trust Eppendorf to streamline your research.Experience efficiency, reliability, and sustainability with Eppendorf centrifuges. Elevate your lab's capabilities today!CLICK HERE TO LEARN MORESpin to Purify: Harnessing Centrifugal Power for Nanoparticle PurificationCentrifugation is essential for achieving monodisperse solutions of nanoparticles and to ensure consistency in your experimentsby Ajay P. Manuel, PhDThe process of centrifugation involves the application of a centrifugal force to assist in the separation and sedimen- tation of various components in a mixture. In the realm of materials science, the ability to precisely control the centrif- ugal force, using centrifuges, allows researchers to isolatespecific particles in heterogeneous mixtures, concentrate, and remove sample impurities. This, in turn, helps foster a wide variety of processes including advanced materials syn- thesis at micro and nano scales, and sample preparation for nanoparticle analysis, to name a few. Centrifuges thus play apivotal role in materials science as well as fostering innova- tions in various fields including nanotechnology, biotechnol- ogy, and polymer science.Nanoparticle purification and characterizationOne of the most significant applications of centrifugation in materials science is the purification of nanoparticles.Nanoparticles, due to their small size and high surface area, often require stringent purification processes to remove contaminants and achieve desired properties. Homogeneity and uniformity are the ideals to strive for. Centrifugation is a highly efficient method for this purpose, utilizing techniques such as density gradient separation and differential centrifu- gal sedimentation (DCS) to help achieve uniform nanoparti- cle size and distribution.Density Gradient CentrifugationDensity gradient centrifugation separates nanoparticles based on their buoyant density. Sample preparation begins by layering a sample onto a preformed density gradient. This is usually composed of a substance like sucrose or calcium chloride. Thhen the centrifugation begins, nanoparticles spin and gradually migrate to areas of matching density within the surrounding media. As a result, nanoparticles are now separated by different densities and provide for a collection of uniform particles with their impurities removed.Differential Centrifugal Sedimentation (DCS)DCS is often used by researchers to obtain information on the size and density of nanoparticles. This technique mea- sures the time it takes for particles to migrate and sediment through a fluid medium subject to centrifugal forces, thus helping determine particle size distributions. For example, in the production of drug delivery systems, DCS can ensure that nanoparticles are of a uniform size, enhancing their efficacy and reducing potential side effects.Although the two techniques may seem similar, the main difference between the two is the type of physical properties on which the process of centrifugation is based. Differential centrifugation is generally considered to be quite straight- forward in its approach while DCS is utilized when there is a need to sort much smaller particles for increased specificity. A slightly modified version of the latter involves centrifugal photo-sedimentation, where a light source is used to mea-sure the concentration of particles at different positions in the sedimentation path. This enables researchers to monitor particle sedimentation in real-time, providing valuable data on particle size and distribution.Centrifugation techniques have been a familiar sight in various applications surrounding nanoparticle analysis and purification. Density gradient centrifugation has been effectively used in the purification of gold nanoparticles toachieve high levels of homogeneity and uniformity in parti- cle size and distribution. DCS has been utilized to study the size distribution of silica nanoparticles, and obtain detailed insights into their synthesis and potential applications.Researchers have found centrifugal photo-sedimentation to be particularly favorable for studying the dynamic behavior of nanoparticles in various environments. Altogether, one cannot underscore the critical role centrifugation and centri- fuges play in advancing nanoparticle research and materials synthesis.ConclusionFrom aiding in the development of advanced materials with tailored properties to effective purification and precise characterization of nanoparticles, centrifugation is an indis- pensable technique in materials science and consequently fostered various innovations in fields including medical imaging, drug delivery, and nanoelectronics.Through techniques such as density gradient centrifuga- tion, differential centrifugal sedimentation, and centrifugal photo-sedimentation, researchers can achieve high-purity nanoparticle samples and detailed analyses of their proper- ties. These capabilities are essential for the development of advanced materials with specific characteristics. As the de- mand for high-performance materials continues to grow, the role of centrifugation in materials science will undoubtedly expand, fostering new discoveries and applications that have the potential to transform various industries.Centrifuge Maintenance ChecklistRoutine maintenance of your centrifuge safeguards its longevity, reliability, and the integrity of your experimentsby Holden Galusha and Ajay P. Manuel, PhDRoutine maintenance of centrifuges is essential for ensuring their longevity, reliability, and optimal performance. Regular lubrication, thorough cleaning, and careful inspection for wear and tear prevent mechanical failures and contamina- tion, thereby safeguarding the integrity of experiments and results. Thell-maintained centrifuges operate more efficiently, reduce the risk of costly repairs or replacements, and ensure the safety of laboratory personnel. The following checklist advises users on consistent centrifuge maintenance practices that can help enhance their confidence and compliance with safety standards, as well as contribute to the overall success and productivity of the laboratory.Understanding Centrifuge TypesThe Role of Centrifuges in Clinical ResearchCentrifuges play an important role in progressing clinical researchby Andy Tay, PhD and Ajay P. Manuel, PhDA centrifuge is one of the most common pieces of equipment in a biological lab. The instrument makes use of centrifu- gal force to separate components in a fluid, causing denser particles to settle to the bottom of a centrifuge tube. After centrifugation, particles are separated into layers based on their densities.One of the most useful applications of centrifuges is for health diagnostics. A common example is for health check- ups using a panel of blood biomarkers. Centrifuges are acrucial part of sample processing because there are many elements within a blood sample that need to be separated as much as possible to provide an accurate diagnosis. After centrifugation, blood is separated into three layers. Thebottom layer contains red blood cells. The percentage of red blood cells and the amount of oxygen they carry can be used to diagnose conditions like anemia, where there are insuf- ficient red blood cells to carry oxygen. The middle layer is white blood cells, and its number can provide information about the body's ability to fight infection. The top layer isplasma, which contains common biomarkers such as urea and creatine, which indicate kidney health.Applications for ultracentrifugesExtracellular vesicles are membrane-bound vesicles between 30-10,000 nm in size secreted from cells that play a role in cellular communications. They are produced in small quan- tities but can be isolated from bodily fluids like blood, urine, and saliva via ultracentrifuges to provide health information. For instance, cancer cells secrete more extracellular vesicles than their healthy counterparts and their vesicles have been found to contain oncoproteins and RNA species that contrib- ute to cancer progression, including metastasis. By analyzing the contents of extracellular vesicles, researchers are trying to develop biomarkers for the diagnosis and surveillanceof cancer.Ultracentrifuges play a pivotal role in isolating pure extra- cellular vesicles as they can spin at a much higher velocity than conventional centrifuges to separate particles with similar densities. In blood plasma, there are many types of biomolecules and cellular secretions of similar densities and to isolate the analyte of choice, these components must be separated very finely to obtain a pure sample. This is also why ultracentrifugation to isolate extracellular vesicles may take hours and multiple steps of washing and purification.Extracellular vesicles are also being developed by biotech companies for drug delivery applications, owing to their bioactive properties and tropism toward targeted tissues. For therapeutic purposes, a large number of extracellular vesi-cles must be isolated quickly, but cells only produce limited quantities. An ultracentrifuge that can work with multiple samples at a time with high isolation throughput is ideal for clinical research.Product featuresNewer centrifuges are equipped with programmable accel- eration and deceleration, which have been shown to help terminate unwanted side reactions and reduce waiting time. These features allow for controlled and gradual changes in spin speeds, preventing sudden forces that could cause sam- ple disruption, shearing, or pelleting irregularities.By allowing users to customize the ramp-up and ramp-down rates, sensitive samples are safeguarded from mechanical stresses associated with the rapid acceleration or decel- eration. This ensures the integrity of delicate biological molecules, such as extracellular vesicles, and other fragile materials during ultracentrifugation.Refrigeration is also an important feature of centrifuges to minimize sample denaturation, especially with biomolecules like proteins. Pre-cooling of centrifuge rotors and havinga minimal rise in temperature when rotors are spinning at maximum speed are also useful to prevent heat-induced sample damage.As more research institutions are going green, manufactur- ers are designing centrifuges that are more environmentally friendly by ensuring lower energy consumption and using recyclable materials.Eppendorf is a leading life science company that develops and supplies products catering to academic and commercial research laboratories. The product portfolio is made up of instruments, consumables, and services for liquid, sample, and cell handling. For over 75 years our products have gained the trust of laboratory researchers. Our scientists and engineers are on a constant mission to build on established methods to help address the challenges that today's scientists face. Building on a foundation of experience, history, and knowledge, we are committed to the future and continuously strive to improve human living conditions.www.eppendorf.com/ca-en/In partnership with
